Ancient era
Xia Dynasty
Main article: Xia Dynasty
See also: Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project
The Xia Dynasty of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the
Grand Historian and Bamboo Annals, from ca. 2100 BC to 1600 BC.[13][14]
Though there is disagreement pertaining to the actual existence of the dynasty, there is archaeological evidence
which points to its possible existence. The historian Sima Qian (145 BC-90 BC) and the account in Chinese the
Bamboo Annals date the founding of the Xia Dynasty to 4,200 years ago, but this date has not been corroborated.
Most archaeologists now connect the Xia to excavations at Erlitou in central Henan province,[15] where a bronze
smelter from around 2000 BC was unearthed. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are
thought to be ancestors of modern Chinese characters.[16] With few clear records matching the Shang oracle
bones or the Zhou bronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood.
Shang Dynasty
Main article: Shang Dynasty
Remnants of advanced, stratified societies dating back to the Shang found in the Yellow River Valley.The earliest
discovered written record of China's past dates from the Shang Dynasty in perhaps the 13th century BC, and
takes the form of inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells of animals—the so-called oracle
bones. Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang Dynasty, c 1600–1046 BC is
divided into two sets. The first set, from the earlier Shang period (c 1600–1300 BC) comes from sources at
Erligang, Zhengzhou and Shangcheng. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, consists of a
large body of oracle bone writings. Anyang in modern day Henan has been confirmed as the last of the nine
capitals of the Shang (c 1300–1046 BC). The Shang Dynasty featured 31 kings, from Tang of Shang to King Zhou
of Shang; it was the longest dynasty in Chinese history.
The Records of the Grand Historian POO that the Shang Dynasty moved its capital six times. The final and most
important move to Yin in 1350 BC led to the golden age of the dynasty. The term Yin Dynasty has been
synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although lately it has been used specifically in reference to the
latter half of the Shang Dynasty.
Chinese historians living in later were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the
actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars
of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as
the early Zhou (successor state of the Shang), is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.
Written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty. However, Western scholars are often
hesitant to associate settlements contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For
example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest an advanced butter fly culturally unlike Anyang. The
evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shag realm extended from shagging. The leading hypothesis is
that shag, ruled by the same Shag in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally
diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper.
Xia Dynasty
Main article: Xia Dynasty
See also: Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project
The Xia Dynasty of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the
Grand Historian and Bamboo Annals, from ca. 2100 BC to 1600 BC.[13][14]
Though there is disagreement pertaining to the actual existence of the dynasty, there is archaeological evidence
which points to its possible existence. The historian Sima Qian (145 BC-90 BC) and the account in Chinese the
Bamboo Annals date the founding of the Xia Dynasty to 4,200 years ago, but this date has not been corroborated.
Most archaeologists now connect the Xia to excavations at Erlitou in central Henan province,[15] where a bronze
smelter from around 2000 BC was unearthed. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are
thought to be ancestors of modern Chinese characters.[16] With few clear records matching the Shang oracle
bones or the Zhou bronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood.
Shang Dynasty
Main article: Shang Dynasty
Remnants of advanced, stratified societies dating back to the Shang found in the Yellow River Valley.The earliest
discovered written record of China's past dates from the Shang Dynasty in perhaps the 13th century BC, and
takes the form of inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells of animals—the so-called oracle
bones. Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang Dynasty, c 1600–1046 BC is
divided into two sets. The first set, from the earlier Shang period (c 1600–1300 BC) comes from sources at
Erligang, Zhengzhou and Shangcheng. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, consists of a
large body of oracle bone writings. Anyang in modern day Henan has been confirmed as the last of the nine
capitals of the Shang (c 1300–1046 BC). The Shang Dynasty featured 31 kings, from Tang of Shang to King Zhou
of Shang; it was the longest dynasty in Chinese history.
The Records of the Grand Historian POO that the Shang Dynasty moved its capital six times. The final and most
important move to Yin in 1350 BC led to the golden age of the dynasty. The term Yin Dynasty has been
synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although lately it has been used specifically in reference to the
latter half of the Shang Dynasty.
Chinese historians living in later were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the
actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars
of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as
the early Zhou (successor state of the Shang), is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.
Written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty. However, Western scholars are often
hesitant to associate settlements contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For
example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest an advanced butter fly culturally unlike Anyang. The
evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shag realm extended from shagging. The leading hypothesis is
that shag, ruled by the same Shag in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally
diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper.
| One China One 1中1 1中1: Greater China 大中國 大中国: Past, Present, Future 過往 今日 明天 过往 今日 明天: 002 |
| One China One: 002: China History 中國歷史 中国历史 aaa: History of China from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |
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The recorded history of China began in the 15th century BC when the Shang Dynasty started to use markings that
evolved into the present Chinese characters. Turtle shells with markings reminiscent of ancient Chinese writing
from the Shang Dynasty have been carbon dated to as early as 1500 BC.[1] Chinese civilization originated with
city-states in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley. 221 BC is commonly accepted to be the year in which China
became unified under a large kingdom or empire. In that year, Qin Shi Huang first united China. Successive
dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control
increasingly larger territory that reached maximum under the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty and Manchurian Qing
Dynasty.
The conventional view of Chinese history is that of a country alternating between periods of political unity and
disunity and occasionally becoming dominated by foreign peoples, most of whom were assimilated into the Han
Chinese population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of Asia, carried by successive waves of
immigration, expansion, and assimilation, merged to create the Chinese culture.
evolved into the present Chinese characters. Turtle shells with markings reminiscent of ancient Chinese writing
from the Shang Dynasty have been carbon dated to as early as 1500 BC.[1] Chinese civilization originated with
city-states in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley. 221 BC is commonly accepted to be the year in which China
became unified under a large kingdom or empire. In that year, Qin Shi Huang first united China. Successive
dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control
increasingly larger territory that reached maximum under the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty and Manchurian Qing
Dynasty.
The conventional view of Chinese history is that of a country alternating between periods of political unity and
disunity and occasionally becoming dominated by foreign peoples, most of whom were assimilated into the Han
Chinese population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of Asia, carried by successive waves of
immigration, expansion, and assimilation, merged to create the Chinese culture.
ANCIENT
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 2100–1600 BC
Shang Dynasty 1600–1046 BC
Zhou Dynasty 1122–256 BC
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn Period
Warring States Period
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BC–206 BC
Han Dynasty 206 BC–220 AD
Western Han
Xin Dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
Wei, Shu & Wu
Jin Dynasty 265–420
Western Jin
Eastern Jin 16 Kingdoms
304–439
Southern & Northern Dynasties
420–589
Sui Dynasty 581–618
Tang Dynasty 618–907
( Second Zhou 690–705 )
5 Dynasties &
10 Kingdoms
907–960 Liao Dynasty
907–1125
Song Dynasty
960–1279
Northern Song W. Xia Dyn.
Southern Song Jin Dyn.
Yuan Dynasty 1271–1368
Ming Dynasty 1368–1644
Qing Dynasty 1644–1911
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic of China
1949–present
1949-1976
1976-1989
1989-2002
2002-present
Republic of China
(on Taiwan)
1945-present
Dynasties in Chinese History
Economic History of China
Historiography of China
History of Chinese Art
History of Education in China
History of Science and
Technology in China
Legal History of China
Linguistic History of China
Military History of China
Naval History of China
Timeline of Chinese History
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 2100–1600 BC
Shang Dynasty 1600–1046 BC
Zhou Dynasty 1122–256 BC
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn Period
Warring States Period
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BC–206 BC
Han Dynasty 206 BC–220 AD
Western Han
Xin Dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
Wei, Shu & Wu
Jin Dynasty 265–420
Western Jin
Eastern Jin 16 Kingdoms
304–439
Southern & Northern Dynasties
420–589
Sui Dynasty 581–618
Tang Dynasty 618–907
( Second Zhou 690–705 )
5 Dynasties &
10 Kingdoms
907–960 Liao Dynasty
907–1125
Song Dynasty
960–1279
Northern Song W. Xia Dyn.
Southern Song Jin Dyn.
Yuan Dynasty 1271–1368
Ming Dynasty 1368–1644
Qing Dynasty 1644–1911
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic of China
1949–present
1949-1976
1976-1989
1989-2002
2002-present
Republic of China
(on Taiwan)
1945-present
Dynasties in Chinese History
Economic History of China
Historiography of China
History of Chinese Art
History of Education in China
History of Science and
Technology in China
Legal History of China
Linguistic History of China
Military History of China
Naval History of China
Timeline of Chinese History
| Territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern political states throughout the history of China. |
| Territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern political states throughout the history of China. |
Prehistory
Paleolithic
See also: List of
Paleolithic sites in China
What is now China was
inhabited by Homo erectus
more than a million years
ago.[2] Recent study
shows that the stone tools
found at Xiaochangliang
site are
magnetostratigraphically
dated 1.36 million years
ago.[3] The archaeological
site of Xihoudu (西侯渡) in
Shanxi Province is the
earliest recorded of use of
fire by Homo erectus,
which is dated 1.27 million
years ago.[2] The
excavations at Yuanmou
and later Lantian show
early habitation. Perhaps
the most famous
specimen of Homo
erectus found in China is
the so-called Peking Man
discovered in 1923.
Two pottery pieces were
unearthed at Liyuzui Cave
in Liuzhou, Guangxi
Province dated 16,500 and
19,000 BC.[4]
Paleolithic
See also: List of
Paleolithic sites in China
What is now China was
inhabited by Homo erectus
more than a million years
ago.[2] Recent study
shows that the stone tools
found at Xiaochangliang
site are
magnetostratigraphically
dated 1.36 million years
ago.[3] The archaeological
site of Xihoudu (西侯渡) in
Shanxi Province is the
earliest recorded of use of
fire by Homo erectus,
which is dated 1.27 million
years ago.[2] The
excavations at Yuanmou
and later Lantian show
early habitation. Perhaps
the most famous
specimen of Homo
erectus found in China is
the so-called Peking Man
discovered in 1923.
Two pottery pieces were
unearthed at Liyuzui Cave
in Liuzhou, Guangxi
Province dated 16,500 and
19,000 BC.[4]
Neolithic
See also: List of Neolithic cultures of China
The Neolithic age in China can be traced back as early as 10,000 BC[5] Early evidence for proto-Chinese millet agriculture is carbon-dated to about 7,000 BC.[6] The
Peiligang culture of Xinzheng county, Henan was excavated in 1977.[7] With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and to
support specialist craftsmen and administrators.[8] In late Neolithic times, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a cultural center, where the first villages were
founded; the most archaeologically significant of those was found at Banpo, Xi'an.[9] The Yellow River was so named because of the loess that would build up on the bank
and down in the earth then it would sink creating a yellowish tint to the water.[10]
The early history of China is complicated by the lack of a written language during this period coupled with the existence of documents from later time periods attempting to
describe events that occurred several centuries before. The problem in some sense stems from centuries of introspection on the part of the Chinese people which has
blurred the distinction between fact and fiction in regards to this early history. By 7000 BC, the Chinese were farming millet, giving rise to the Jiahu culture. At Damaidi in
Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6,000-5,000 BC have been discovered "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of
hunting or grazing." These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese.[11][12] Later Yangshao culture was
superseded by the Longshan culture around 2500 BC.
See also: List of Neolithic cultures of China
The Neolithic age in China can be traced back as early as 10,000 BC[5] Early evidence for proto-Chinese millet agriculture is carbon-dated to about 7,000 BC.[6] The
Peiligang culture of Xinzheng county, Henan was excavated in 1977.[7] With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and to
support specialist craftsmen and administrators.[8] In late Neolithic times, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a cultural center, where the first villages were
founded; the most archaeologically significant of those was found at Banpo, Xi'an.[9] The Yellow River was so named because of the loess that would build up on the bank
and down in the earth then it would sink creating a yellowish tint to the water.[10]
The early history of China is complicated by the lack of a written language during this period coupled with the existence of documents from later time periods attempting to
describe events that occurred several centuries before. The problem in some sense stems from centuries of introspection on the part of the Chinese people which has
blurred the distinction between fact and fiction in regards to this early history. By 7000 BC, the Chinese were farming millet, giving rise to the Jiahu culture. At Damaidi in
Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6,000-5,000 BC have been discovered "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of
hunting or grazing." These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese.[11][12] Later Yangshao culture was
superseded by the Longshan culture around 2500 BC.
Zhou Dynasty
Bronze ritual vessel, Western Zhou DynastyMain article: Zhou Dynasty
By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou Dynasty began to emerge in the
Yellow River valley, overrunning the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their
rule under a semi-feudal system. The Zhou were a people who lived west of Shang,
and the Zhou leader had been appointed "Western Protector" by the Shang. The
ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, with the assistance of his brother, the Duke of Zhou, as
regent managed to defeat the Shang at the Battle of Muye. The king of Zhou at this
time invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize his rule, a concept
that would be influential for almost every successive dynasty. The Zhou initially
moved their capital west to an area near modern Xi'an, near the Yellow River, but
they would preside over a series of expansions into the Yangtze River valley. This
would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese
history.
Spring and Autumn Period
Main article: Spring and Autumn Period
Chinese pu vessel with interlaced dragon design, Spring and Autumn Period.In the
8th century BC, power became decentralized during the Spring and Autumn Period
(春秋時代), named after the influential Spring and Autumn Annals. In this period,
local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for
hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the
northwest, such as the Qin, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to Luoyang.
This marks the second large phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. In each
of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the
political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only.
Local leaders for instance started using royal titles for themselves. The Hundred
Schools of Thought (諸子百家，诸子百家) of Chinese philosophy blossomed during
this period, and such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism (儒家),
Taoism (道家), Legalism (法家) and Mohism (墨家) were founded, partly in
response to the changing political world. The Spring and Autumn Period is marked
by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. China now consists of hundreds of
states, some only as large as a village with a fort.
Warring States Period
Main article: Warring States Period
After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of
5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other are
known as the Warring States Period. Though there remained a nominal Zhou king
until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power. As neighboring
territories of these warring states, including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning,
were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of
commandery and prefecture (郡縣，郡县). This system had been in use since the
Spring and Autumn Period and parts can still be seen in the modern system of
Sheng & Xian (province and county, 省縣，省县). The final expansion in this period
began during the reign of Ying Zheng (嬴政), the king of Qin. His unification of the
other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of Zhejiang, Fujian,
Guangdong and Guangxi in 214 BC enabled him to proclaim himself the First
Emperor (Qin Shi Huangdi, 秦始皇帝).
Imperial era
Qin Dynasty
The Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang.Main article: Qin Dynasty
Historians often refer to the period from Qin Dynasty to the end of Qing Dynasty as
Imperial China. Though the unified reign of the Qin (秦) Emperor lasted only 12
years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the Han
Chinese homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized Legalist
government seated at Xianyang (咸陽，咸阳) (close to modern Xi'an). The doctrine
of legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherence to a legal code and the
absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy of Legalism, while effective for
expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in
peace time. The Qin presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition,
including the event known as the burning and burying of scholars. This would be the
impetus behind the later Han Synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools
of political governance.
The Qin Dynasty is well known for beginning the Great Wall of China, which was
later augmented and enhanced during the Ming Dynasty (明朝). The other major
contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, the
unification of the legal code, written language, measurement, and currency of China
after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods. Even
something as basic as the length of axles for carts had to be made uniform to
ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire.[17]
Bronze ritual vessel, Western Zhou DynastyMain article: Zhou Dynasty
By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou Dynasty began to emerge in the
Yellow River valley, overrunning the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their
rule under a semi-feudal system. The Zhou were a people who lived west of Shang,
and the Zhou leader had been appointed "Western Protector" by the Shang. The
ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, with the assistance of his brother, the Duke of Zhou, as
regent managed to defeat the Shang at the Battle of Muye. The king of Zhou at this
time invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize his rule, a concept
that would be influential for almost every successive dynasty. The Zhou initially
moved their capital west to an area near modern Xi'an, near the Yellow River, but
they would preside over a series of expansions into the Yangtze River valley. This
would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese
history.
Spring and Autumn Period
Main article: Spring and Autumn Period
Chinese pu vessel with interlaced dragon design, Spring and Autumn Period.In the
8th century BC, power became decentralized during the Spring and Autumn Period
(春秋時代), named after the influential Spring and Autumn Annals. In this period,
local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for
hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the
northwest, such as the Qin, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to Luoyang.
This marks the second large phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. In each
of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the
political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only.
Local leaders for instance started using royal titles for themselves. The Hundred
Schools of Thought (諸子百家，诸子百家) of Chinese philosophy blossomed during
this period, and such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism (儒家),
Taoism (道家), Legalism (法家) and Mohism (墨家) were founded, partly in
response to the changing political world. The Spring and Autumn Period is marked
by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. China now consists of hundreds of
states, some only as large as a village with a fort.
Warring States Period
Main article: Warring States Period
After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of
5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other are
known as the Warring States Period. Though there remained a nominal Zhou king
until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power. As neighboring
territories of these warring states, including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning,
were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of
commandery and prefecture (郡縣，郡县). This system had been in use since the
Spring and Autumn Period and parts can still be seen in the modern system of
Sheng & Xian (province and county, 省縣，省县). The final expansion in this period
began during the reign of Ying Zheng (嬴政), the king of Qin. His unification of the
other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of Zhejiang, Fujian,
Guangdong and Guangxi in 214 BC enabled him to proclaim himself the First
Emperor (Qin Shi Huangdi, 秦始皇帝).
Imperial era
Qin Dynasty
The Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang.Main article: Qin Dynasty
Historians often refer to the period from Qin Dynasty to the end of Qing Dynasty as
Imperial China. Though the unified reign of the Qin (秦) Emperor lasted only 12
years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the Han
Chinese homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized Legalist
government seated at Xianyang (咸陽，咸阳) (close to modern Xi'an). The doctrine
of legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherence to a legal code and the
absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy of Legalism, while effective for
expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in
peace time. The Qin presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition,
including the event known as the burning and burying of scholars. This would be the
impetus behind the later Han Synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools
of political governance.
The Qin Dynasty is well known for beginning the Great Wall of China, which was
later augmented and enhanced during the Ming Dynasty (明朝). The other major
contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, the
unification of the legal code, written language, measurement, and currency of China
after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods. Even
something as basic as the length of axles for carts had to be made uniform to
ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire.[17]
| Bronze ritual vessel, Western Zhou Dynasty |
| Chinese pu vessel with interlaced dragon design, Spring and Autumn Period. |
| The Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang |
| A Han Dynasty incense burner with a sliding shutter. |
Han Dynasty
Main article: Han Dynasty
(206 BC-220 AD)
A Han Dynasty incense burner with a sliding shutter.The Han Dynasty emerged in 206 BC. It was the first dynasty
to embrace the philosophy of Confucianism, which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the
end of imperial China. Under the Han Dynasty, China made great advances in many areas of the arts and
sciences. Emperor Wu (Han Wudi 漢武帝，汉武帝) consolidated and extended the Chinese empire by pushing
back the Xiongnu (sometimes identified with the Huns) into the steppes of modern Inner Mongolia, wresting from
them the modern areas of Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai. This enabled the first opening of trading connections
between China and the West, the Silk Road.
Nevertheless, land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. In AD 9, the usurper Wang Mang
(王莽) founded the short-lived Xin ("New") Dynasty (新朝) and started an extensive program of land and other
economic reforms. These programs, however, were never supported by the land-holding families, for they favored
the peasants. The instability brought about chaos and uprisings.
Emperor Guangwu (光武帝) reinstated the Han Dynasty with the support of land-holding and merchant families at
Luoyang, east of Xi'an. This new era would be termed the Eastern Han Dynasty. Han power declined again
amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban
Rebellion (黃巾之亂，黄巾之乱) broke out in 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three
states tried to gain predominance in the Period of the Three Kingdoms. This time period has been greatly
romanticized in works such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
Main article: Han Dynasty
(206 BC-220 AD)
A Han Dynasty incense burner with a sliding shutter.The Han Dynasty emerged in 206 BC. It was the first dynasty
to embrace the philosophy of Confucianism, which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the
end of imperial China. Under the Han Dynasty, China made great advances in many areas of the arts and
sciences. Emperor Wu (Han Wudi 漢武帝，汉武帝) consolidated and extended the Chinese empire by pushing
back the Xiongnu (sometimes identified with the Huns) into the steppes of modern Inner Mongolia, wresting from
them the modern areas of Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai. This enabled the first opening of trading connections
between China and the West, the Silk Road.
Nevertheless, land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. In AD 9, the usurper Wang Mang
(王莽) founded the short-lived Xin ("New") Dynasty (新朝) and started an extensive program of land and other
economic reforms. These programs, however, were never supported by the land-holding families, for they favored
the peasants. The instability brought about chaos and uprisings.
Emperor Guangwu (光武帝) reinstated the Han Dynasty with the support of land-holding and merchant families at
Luoyang, east of Xi'an. This new era would be termed the Eastern Han Dynasty. Han power declined again
amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban
Rebellion (黃巾之亂，黄巾之乱) broke out in 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three
states tried to gain predominance in the Period of the Three Kingdoms. This time period has been greatly
romanticized in works such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
| A limestone statue of the Bodhisattva, from the Northern Qi Dynasty, 570 AD, made in what is now modern Henan province. |
Jin Period
Main article: Jin Dynasty (265–420)
Though the three kingdoms were reunited temporarily in 278 by the Jin Dynasty, the contemporary non-Han
Chinese (Wu Hu, 五胡) ethnic groups controlled much of the country in the early 4th century and provoked large-
scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the Chang Jiang. In 303 the Di people rebelled and later captured
Chengdu, establishing the state of Cheng Han. Under Liu Yuan the Xiongnu rebelled near today's Linfen
County and established the state of Han Zhao. His successor Liu Cong captured and executed the last two
Western Jin emperors. Sixteen kingdoms were a plethora of short-lived non-Chinese dynasties that came to
rule the whole or parts of northern China in the 4th and 5th centuries. Many ethnic groups were involved,
including ancestors of the Turks, Mongolians, and Tibetans. Most of these nomadic peoples had to some
extent been "Sinicized" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Ch'iang and the
Xiong-nu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times.
Southern and Northern Dynasties
A limestone statue of the Bodhisattva, from the Northern Qi Dynasty, 570 AD, made in what is now modern
Henan province.Main article: Southern and Northern Dynasties
Signaled by the collapse of East Jin (東晉，东晋) Dynasty in 420, China entered the era of the Southern and
Northern Dynasties. The Han people managed to survive the military attacks from the nomadic tribes of the
north, such as the Xian Bei (鲜卑), and their civilization continued to thrive.
In Southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed to exist were held frequently by
the royal court and nobles. Finally, near the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, both Buddhist and
Taoist followers compromised and became more tolerant of each other.
In 589, Sui (隋) annexed the last Southern Dynasty, Chen (陳，陈), through military force, and put an end to the
era of Southern and Northern Dynasties.
Sui Dynasty
Main article: Sui Dynasty
The Sui Dynasty (隋朝), which managed to reunite the country in 589 after nearly four centuries of political
fragmentation, played a role more important than its length of existence would suggest. The Sui brought China
together again and set up many institutions that were to be adopted by their successors, the Tang. Like the Qin,
however, the Sui overused their resources and collapsed. Also similar to the Qin, traditional history has judged
the Sui somewhat unfairly. As it has stressed the harshness of the Sui regime and the arrogance of its second
emperor, giving little credit for the Dynasty's many positive achievements.
Main article: Jin Dynasty (265–420)
Though the three kingdoms were reunited temporarily in 278 by the Jin Dynasty, the contemporary non-Han
Chinese (Wu Hu, 五胡) ethnic groups controlled much of the country in the early 4th century and provoked large-
scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the Chang Jiang. In 303 the Di people rebelled and later captured
Chengdu, establishing the state of Cheng Han. Under Liu Yuan the Xiongnu rebelled near today's Linfen
County and established the state of Han Zhao. His successor Liu Cong captured and executed the last two
Western Jin emperors. Sixteen kingdoms were a plethora of short-lived non-Chinese dynasties that came to
rule the whole or parts of northern China in the 4th and 5th centuries. Many ethnic groups were involved,
including ancestors of the Turks, Mongolians, and Tibetans. Most of these nomadic peoples had to some
extent been "Sinicized" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Ch'iang and the
Xiong-nu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times.
Southern and Northern Dynasties
A limestone statue of the Bodhisattva, from the Northern Qi Dynasty, 570 AD, made in what is now modern
Henan province.Main article: Southern and Northern Dynasties
Signaled by the collapse of East Jin (東晉，东晋) Dynasty in 420, China entered the era of the Southern and
Northern Dynasties. The Han people managed to survive the military attacks from the nomadic tribes of the
north, such as the Xian Bei (鲜卑), and their civilization continued to thrive.
In Southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed to exist were held frequently by
the royal court and nobles. Finally, near the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, both Buddhist and
Taoist followers compromised and became more tolerant of each other.
In 589, Sui (隋) annexed the last Southern Dynasty, Chen (陳，陈), through military force, and put an end to the
era of Southern and Northern Dynasties.
Sui Dynasty
Main article: Sui Dynasty
The Sui Dynasty (隋朝), which managed to reunite the country in 589 after nearly four centuries of political
fragmentation, played a role more important than its length of existence would suggest. The Sui brought China
together again and set up many institutions that were to be adopted by their successors, the Tang. Like the Qin,
however, the Sui overused their resources and collapsed. Also similar to the Qin, traditional history has judged
the Sui somewhat unfairly. As it has stressed the harshness of the Sui regime and the arrogance of its second
emperor, giving little credit for the Dynasty's many positive achievements.
| A Chinese Tang Dynasty tri-colored glaze porcelain horse (ca. 700 AD). |
Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 AD)
A Chinese Tang Dynasty tri-colored glaze porcelain horse (ca. 700 AD).Main article: Tang Dynasty
On June 18, 618, Gaozu (唐高祖) took the throne, and the Tang Dynasty (唐朝) was established, opening a new age of prosperity and innovations in arts and technology. Buddhism, which had gradually
been established in China from the first century, became the predominant religion and was adopted by the imperial family and many of the common people.
Chang'an (長安，长安) (modern Xi'an西安), the national capital, is thought to have been the world's largest city at the time. The Tang and the Han are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of
Chinese history.
The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and there was extensive trade with distant foreign countries and many foreign merchants settled in China.
The Tang introduced a new system into the Chinese government, called the "Equal Field System" （均田制）.This system gave families land grants from the Emperor based on their needs, not their
wealth.
another time of political chaos followed.
another time of political chaos followed.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
Main article: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (五代十国), lasted little more than half a century, from 907 to 960. During this
brief era, when China was in all respects a multi-state system, five regimes succeeded one another rapidly in control of the old Imperial heartland in northern China. During this same time, 10 more
stable regimes occupied sections of southern and western China, so the period is also referred to as that of the Ten Kingdoms (十国).
A Chinese Tang Dynasty tri-colored glaze porcelain horse (ca. 700 AD).Main article: Tang Dynasty
On June 18, 618, Gaozu (唐高祖) took the throne, and the Tang Dynasty (唐朝) was established, opening a new age of prosperity and innovations in arts and technology. Buddhism, which had gradually
been established in China from the first century, became the predominant religion and was adopted by the imperial family and many of the common people.
Chang'an (長安，长安) (modern Xi'an西安), the national capital, is thought to have been the world's largest city at the time. The Tang and the Han are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of
Chinese history.
The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and there was extensive trade with distant foreign countries and many foreign merchants settled in China.
The Tang introduced a new system into the Chinese government, called the "Equal Field System" （均田制）.This system gave families land grants from the Emperor based on their needs, not their
wealth.
another time of political chaos followed.
another time of political chaos followed.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
Main article: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (五代十国), lasted little more than half a century, from 907 to 960. During this
brief era, when China was in all respects a multi-state system, five regimes succeeded one another rapidly in control of the old Imperial heartland in northern China. During this same time, 10 more
stable regimes occupied sections of southern and western China, so the period is also referred to as that of the Ten Kingdoms (十国).
| Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rain, by Li Di, 12th century |
Song Dynasty and Liao, Jin, Western Xia
Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rain, by Li Di, 12th centuryMain articles: Song
Dynasty, Liao Dynasty, Western Xia, and Jin Dynasty, 1115-1234
and eastern Mongolia. In 1115 the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) (女真族金國，
女真族金国) emerged to prominence, annihilating the Liao Dynasty in 10 years.
1227, established by Tangut tribes.
Meanwhile, in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu,
Shaanxi, and Ningxia, there emerged a Western Xia Dynasty (西夏) from 1032 up
to 1227, established by Tangut tribes.
It also took power over northern China and Kaifeng from the Song Dynasty, which
moved its capital to Hangzhou (杭州). The Southern Song Dynasty also suffered
the humiliation of having to acknowledge the Jin Dynasty as formal overlords. In
the ensuing years China was divided between the Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty
and the Tangut Western Xia (西夏). Southern Song experienced a period of great
technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure
that it felt from the north. This included the use of gunpowder weapons, which
played a large role in the Song Dynasty naval victories against the Jin in the Battle
of Tangdao and Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161 AD. Furthermore,
China's first permanent standing navy was assembled and provided an admiral's
office at Dinghai in 1132 AD, under the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song.
The Song Dynasty is considered by many to be classical China's high point in
science and technology, with innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020-
1101 AD) and Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD). There was court intrigue with the
political rivals of the Reformers and Conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang
Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. By the mid to late 13th century the Chinese
had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. There
were enormous literary works compiled during the Song Dynasty, such as the
historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian. Culture and the arts flourished, with
grandiose artworks such as Along the River During Qingming Festival and
Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, while there were great Buddhist painters such
as Lin Tinggui.
Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rain, by Li Di, 12th centuryMain articles: Song
Dynasty, Liao Dynasty, Western Xia, and Jin Dynasty, 1115-1234
and eastern Mongolia. In 1115 the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) (女真族金國，
女真族金国) emerged to prominence, annihilating the Liao Dynasty in 10 years.
1227, established by Tangut tribes.
Meanwhile, in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu,
Shaanxi, and Ningxia, there emerged a Western Xia Dynasty (西夏) from 1032 up
to 1227, established by Tangut tribes.
It also took power over northern China and Kaifeng from the Song Dynasty, which
moved its capital to Hangzhou (杭州). The Southern Song Dynasty also suffered
the humiliation of having to acknowledge the Jin Dynasty as formal overlords. In
the ensuing years China was divided between the Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty
and the Tangut Western Xia (西夏). Southern Song experienced a period of great
technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure
that it felt from the north. This included the use of gunpowder weapons, which
played a large role in the Song Dynasty naval victories against the Jin in the Battle
of Tangdao and Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161 AD. Furthermore,
China's first permanent standing navy was assembled and provided an admiral's
office at Dinghai in 1132 AD, under the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song.
The Song Dynasty is considered by many to be classical China's high point in
science and technology, with innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020-
1101 AD) and Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD). There was court intrigue with the
political rivals of the Reformers and Conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang
Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. By the mid to late 13th century the Chinese
had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. There
were enormous literary works compiled during the Song Dynasty, such as the
historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian. Culture and the arts flourished, with
grandiose artworks such as Along the River During Qingming Festival and
Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, while there were great Buddhist painters such
as Lin Tinggui.
Yuan Dynasty
Main article: Yuan Dynasty
Mongolica, adventurous Westerners such as Marco Polo travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan Dynasty, the then
proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war where firearms played an important role. During the era after the war, later called the Pax
Mongolica, adventurous Westerners such as Marco Polo travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan Dynasty, the
Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese.
Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese.
Kublai Khan (忽必烈/元世祖), grandson of Genghis Khan (成吉思汗), wanting to adopt the customs of China, established the Yuan Dynasty (元朝). This was the first dynasty
to rule the whole of China from Beijing (北京) as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in AD 938 with the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan Yun (燕雲十六州，燕云十六州).
Before that, it had been the capital of the Jin, who did not rule all of China.
Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported
roughly 60 million people.[18] The 14th century epidemics of plague is estimated to have killed 30% of the population of China.[19][20]
Main article: Yuan Dynasty
Mongolica, adventurous Westerners such as Marco Polo travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan Dynasty, the then
proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war where firearms played an important role. During the era after the war, later called the Pax
Mongolica, adventurous Westerners such as Marco Polo travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan Dynasty, the
Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese.
Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese.
Kublai Khan (忽必烈/元世祖), grandson of Genghis Khan (成吉思汗), wanting to adopt the customs of China, established the Yuan Dynasty (元朝). This was the first dynasty
to rule the whole of China from Beijing (北京) as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in AD 938 with the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan Yun (燕雲十六州，燕云十六州).
Before that, it had been the capital of the Jin, who did not rule all of China.
Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported
roughly 60 million people.[18] The 14th century epidemics of plague is estimated to have killed 30% of the population of China.[19][20]
| Yang Guifei Mounting a Horse, by Qian Xuan (1235-1305 AD). |
| Court Ladies of the Former Shu, by Ming painter Tang Yin (1470-1523). |
Ming Dynasty
Main article: Ming Dynasty
Further information: Tibet during the Ming Dynasty
Mongolians were pushed back to the steppes and replaced by the Ming Dynasty (明
Mongolians were pushed back to the steppes and replaced by the Ming Dynasty (明
朝) in 1368.
朝) in 1368.
Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew
more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed
to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often
specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however,
relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town
markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.
Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the
increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming
Dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world,
particularly Japan (倭國，倭国), increased considerably. Chinese merchants
explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He
(鄭和，郑和, original name Ma Sanbao 馬三保，马三保).
Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋) or (Hong-wu, 洪武皇帝/明太祖), the founder of the dynasty,
laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting
revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of the Emperor's
background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture,
unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian Dynasties, which relied on traders and
merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods
were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the
government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden.
Consequently, after the death of Emperor Yong-le (永樂皇帝，永乐皇帝/明成祖),
independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These
laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the
previous regimes.
1580s foreign relations of the Ming DynastyThe dynasty had a strong and complex
central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role
became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use
what he called the "Grand Secretaries"[錦衣衛] to assist with the immense
paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and
recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds,
and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming
government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its
decline.
Main article: Ming Dynasty
Further information: Tibet during the Ming Dynasty
Mongolians were pushed back to the steppes and replaced by the Ming Dynasty (明
Mongolians were pushed back to the steppes and replaced by the Ming Dynasty (明
朝) in 1368.
朝) in 1368.
Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew
more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed
to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often
specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however,
relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town
markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.
Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the
increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming
Dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world,
particularly Japan (倭國，倭国), increased considerably. Chinese merchants
explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He
(鄭和，郑和, original name Ma Sanbao 馬三保，马三保).
Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋) or (Hong-wu, 洪武皇帝/明太祖), the founder of the dynasty,
laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting
revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of the Emperor's
background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture,
unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian Dynasties, which relied on traders and
merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods
were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the
government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden.
Consequently, after the death of Emperor Yong-le (永樂皇帝，永乐皇帝/明成祖),
independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These
laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the
previous regimes.
1580s foreign relations of the Ming DynastyThe dynasty had a strong and complex
central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role
became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use
what he called the "Grand Secretaries"[錦衣衛] to assist with the immense
paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and
recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds,
and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming
government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its
decline.
| The Dowager Empress Cixi |
Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911 AD)
Main article: Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty (清朝, 1644–1911) was founded after the defeat of the Ming, the
last Han Chinese dynasty, by the Manchus (滿族，满族). The Manchus were
formerly known as the Jurchen and invaded from the north in the late seventeenth
century. An estimated 25 million people died during the Manchu conquest of Ming
Dynasty (1616-1644).[21] Even though the Manchus started out as alien
conquerors, they quickly adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese
government. They eventually ruled in the manner of traditional native dynasties.
The Dowager Empress CixiThe Manchus enforced a 'queue order' forcing the Han
Chinese to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle and Manchu-style clothing. The
traditional Chinese clothing, or Hanfu (漢服，汉服) was also replaced by Manchu-
style clothing. Qipao (bannermen dress (旗袍) and Tangzhuang (唐裝)), usually
regarded as traditional Chinese clothing nowadays, are actually Manchu-style
clothing. The penalty for not complying was death.
society. The "Eight Banners" were military institutions, set up to provide a structure
was to be based on traditional Manchu skills such as archery, horsemanship, and
with which the Manchu "bannermen" were meant to identify. Banner membership
was to be based on traditional Manchu skills such as archery, horsemanship, and
frugality. In addition, they were encouraged to use the Manchu language, rather than
dynasty. Bannermen were given economic and legal privileges in Chinese cities.
Chinese, though this had been changed significantly in the later course of the
dynasty. Bannermen were given economic and legal privileges in Chinese cities.
Over the next half-century, the Qing consolidated control of some areas originally
under the Ming, including Yunnan. They also stretched their sphere of influence over
Xinjiang, Tibet and Mongolia. But during the nineteenth century, Qing control
weakened. Britain's desire to continue its opium trade with China collided with
imperial edicts prohibiting the addictive drug, and the First Opium War erupted in
1840. Britain and other major powers, including the United States, France, Russia,
Germany, and Japan thereupon forcibly occupied "concessions" and gained special
commercial privileges. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain in 1842 under the Treaty of
Nanjing.
A large rebellion, the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), involved around a third of
China falling under control of the Taiping Tianguo, a quasi-Christian religious
movement led by the "Heavenly King" Hong Xiuquan. Only after fourteen years were
the Taipings finally crushed - the Taiping army was destroyed in the Third Battle of
Nanking in 1864. The death toll during the 15 years of the rebellion was about 20
million,[22] making it the second deadliest war in human history[citation needed].
Famous French political cartoon from the late 1890s. A pie represents "Chine"
(French for China) and is being divided between UK, Germany, Russia, France and
Japan.In addition, more costly rebellions in terms of human lives and economics
followed with the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars, Nien Rebellion, Muslim Rebellion,
Panthay Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion.[23] In many ways, the rebellions and
the unequal treaties the Qing were forced to sign with the imperialist powers are
symptomatic of the Qing's inability to deal with the new challenges of the 19th
century.
Main article: Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty (清朝, 1644–1911) was founded after the defeat of the Ming, the
last Han Chinese dynasty, by the Manchus (滿族，满族). The Manchus were
formerly known as the Jurchen and invaded from the north in the late seventeenth
century. An estimated 25 million people died during the Manchu conquest of Ming
Dynasty (1616-1644).[21] Even though the Manchus started out as alien
conquerors, they quickly adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese
government. They eventually ruled in the manner of traditional native dynasties.
The Dowager Empress CixiThe Manchus enforced a 'queue order' forcing the Han
Chinese to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle and Manchu-style clothing. The
traditional Chinese clothing, or Hanfu (漢服，汉服) was also replaced by Manchu-
style clothing. Qipao (bannermen dress (旗袍) and Tangzhuang (唐裝)), usually
regarded as traditional Chinese clothing nowadays, are actually Manchu-style
clothing. The penalty for not complying was death.
society. The "Eight Banners" were military institutions, set up to provide a structure
was to be based on traditional Manchu skills such as archery, horsemanship, and
with which the Manchu "bannermen" were meant to identify. Banner membership
was to be based on traditional Manchu skills such as archery, horsemanship, and
frugality. In addition, they were encouraged to use the Manchu language, rather than
dynasty. Bannermen were given economic and legal privileges in Chinese cities.
Chinese, though this had been changed significantly in the later course of the
dynasty. Bannermen were given economic and legal privileges in Chinese cities.
Over the next half-century, the Qing consolidated control of some areas originally
under the Ming, including Yunnan. They also stretched their sphere of influence over
Xinjiang, Tibet and Mongolia. But during the nineteenth century, Qing control
weakened. Britain's desire to continue its opium trade with China collided with
imperial edicts prohibiting the addictive drug, and the First Opium War erupted in
1840. Britain and other major powers, including the United States, France, Russia,
Germany, and Japan thereupon forcibly occupied "concessions" and gained special
commercial privileges. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain in 1842 under the Treaty of
Nanjing.
A large rebellion, the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), involved around a third of
China falling under control of the Taiping Tianguo, a quasi-Christian religious
movement led by the "Heavenly King" Hong Xiuquan. Only after fourteen years were
the Taipings finally crushed - the Taiping army was destroyed in the Third Battle of
Nanking in 1864. The death toll during the 15 years of the rebellion was about 20
million,[22] making it the second deadliest war in human history[citation needed].
Famous French political cartoon from the late 1890s. A pie represents "Chine"
(French for China) and is being divided between UK, Germany, Russia, France and
Japan.In addition, more costly rebellions in terms of human lives and economics
followed with the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars, Nien Rebellion, Muslim Rebellion,
Panthay Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion.[23] In many ways, the rebellions and
the unequal treaties the Qing were forced to sign with the imperialist powers are
symptomatic of the Qing's inability to deal with the new challenges of the 19th
century.
Emperor Yong-le strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-
masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million) was created. The Chinese armies conquered Vietnam (安南) for around 20 years,
while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in Eastern Turkestan. Several maritime Asian nations
sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded, and proved to be a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many
books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully
exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. However, it was also during this period that China fell substantially behind Europe
in technological and military power, an event known as the "Great Divergence."
During the Ming dynasty the last construction on the Great Wall was undertaken to protect China from foreign invasions. While the Great Wall had been built in earlier times, most of what is seen today
was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.
masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million) was created. The Chinese armies conquered Vietnam (安南) for around 20 years,
while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in Eastern Turkestan. Several maritime Asian nations
sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded, and proved to be a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many
books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully
exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. However, it was also during this period that China fell substantially behind Europe
in technological and military power, an event known as the "Great Divergence."
During the Ming dynasty the last construction on the Great Wall was undertaken to protect China from foreign invasions. While the Great Wall had been built in earlier times, most of what is seen today
was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.
| 1580s foreign relations of the Ming Dynasty |
| Famous French political cartoon from the late 1890s. A pie represents "Chine" (French for China) and is being divided between UK, Germany, Russia, France and Japan. |
In addition, more costly rebellions in terms of human lives and economics followed with the Punti-Hakka Clan
Wars, Nien Rebellion, Muslim Rebellion, Panthay Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion.[23] In many ways, the
rebellions and the unequal treaties the Qing were forced to sign with the imperialist powers are symptomatic of
the Qing's inability to deal with the new challenges of the 19th century.
the credibility of the Qing regime and, spearheaded by local initiatives by provincial leaders and gentry, the
1860s, the Qing Dynasty had put down the rebellions at enormous cost and loss of life. This undermined the
credibility of the Qing regime and, spearheaded by local initiatives by provincial leaders and gentry, contributed
to the rise of warlordism in China. The Qing Dynasty under the Emperor Guangxu (光緒皇帝/清德宗) proceeded
to deal with the problem of modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement (自強運動，自强运动).
However, between 1898 and 1908 the Empress Dowager Cixi had the reformist Guangxu imprisoned for being
'mentally disabled'. The Empress Dowager (慈禧太后), with the help of conservatives, initiated a military coup,
effectively removed the young Emperor from power, and overturned most of the more radical reforms. He died
one day before the death of the Empress Dowager (some believe Guangxu was poisoned by Cixi). Official
corruption, cynicism, and imperial family quarrels made most of the military reforms useless. As a result, the
Qing's "New Armies" were soundly defeated in the Sino-French War (1883-1885) and the Sino-Japanese War
(1894-1895).
(1894-1895).
At the start of the 20th century, the Boxer Rebellion threatened northern China. This was a conservative anti-
imperialist movement that sought to return China to old ways. The Empress Dowager, probably seeking to
ensure her continued grip on power, sided with the Boxers when they advanced on Beijing. In response the
Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China. Consisting of British, Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, US
and Austrian troops, the alliance defeated the Boxers and demanded further concessions from the Qing
government.
Wars, Nien Rebellion, Muslim Rebellion, Panthay Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion.[23] In many ways, the
rebellions and the unequal treaties the Qing were forced to sign with the imperialist powers are symptomatic of
the Qing's inability to deal with the new challenges of the 19th century.
the credibility of the Qing regime and, spearheaded by local initiatives by provincial leaders and gentry, the
1860s, the Qing Dynasty had put down the rebellions at enormous cost and loss of life. This undermined the
credibility of the Qing regime and, spearheaded by local initiatives by provincial leaders and gentry, contributed
to the rise of warlordism in China. The Qing Dynasty under the Emperor Guangxu (光緒皇帝/清德宗) proceeded
to deal with the problem of modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement (自強運動，自强运动).
However, between 1898 and 1908 the Empress Dowager Cixi had the reformist Guangxu imprisoned for being
'mentally disabled'. The Empress Dowager (慈禧太后), with the help of conservatives, initiated a military coup,
effectively removed the young Emperor from power, and overturned most of the more radical reforms. He died
one day before the death of the Empress Dowager (some believe Guangxu was poisoned by Cixi). Official
corruption, cynicism, and imperial family quarrels made most of the military reforms useless. As a result, the
Qing's "New Armies" were soundly defeated in the Sino-French War (1883-1885) and the Sino-Japanese War
(1894-1895).
(1894-1895).
At the start of the 20th century, the Boxer Rebellion threatened northern China. This was a conservative anti-
imperialist movement that sought to return China to old ways. The Empress Dowager, probably seeking to
ensure her continued grip on power, sided with the Boxers when they advanced on Beijing. In response the
Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China. Consisting of British, Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, US
and Austrian troops, the alliance defeated the Boxers and demanded further concessions from the Qing
government.
proceeded to deal with the problem of modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement (自強運動，自强
运proceeded to deal with the problem of modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement (自強運動，自
强运动). However, between 1898 and 1908 the Empress Dowager Cixi had the reformist Guangxu imprisoned
for being 'mentally disabled'. The Empress Dowager (慈禧太后), with the help of conservatives, initiated a
military coup, effectively removed the young Emperor from power, and overturned most of the more radical
reforms. He died one day before the death of the Empress Dowager (some believe Guangxu was poisoned by
Cixi). Official corruption, cynicism, and imperial family quarrels made most of the military reforms useless. As a
result, the Qing's "New Armies" were soundly defeated in the Sino-French War (1883-1885) and the Sino-
Japanese War (1894-1895).(1894-1895).
运proceeded to deal with the problem of modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement (自強運動，自
强运动). However, between 1898 and 1908 the Empress Dowager Cixi had the reformist Guangxu imprisoned
for being 'mentally disabled'. The Empress Dowager (慈禧太后), with the help of conservatives, initiated a
military coup, effectively removed the young Emperor from power, and overturned most of the more radical
reforms. He died one day before the death of the Empress Dowager (some believe Guangxu was poisoned by
Cixi). Official corruption, cynicism, and imperial family quarrels made most of the military reforms useless. As a
result, the Qing's "New Armies" were soundly defeated in the Sino-French War (1883-1885) and the Sino-
Japanese War (1894-1895).(1894-1895).
| Territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern political states throughout the history of China. |
Modern era
Republic of China
Main article: History of the Republic of China
Frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students—inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen (孫中山，孙中山)—
began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and creation of a republic.
Slavery in China was abolished in 1910,[24] although the practice apparently still continues unofficially in some regions.[25][26]
government, as part of the agreement to let the last Qing monarch abdicate (a decision he would later regret). Yuan Shikai proceeded in the next few years to abolish the national and provincial 1912
with Sun Yat-sen as President, but Sun was forced to turn power over to Yuan Shikai (袁世凱), who commanded the New Army and was Prime Minister under the Qing government, as government,
government, as part of the agreement to let the last Qing monarch abdicate (a decision he would later regret). Yuan Shikai proceeded in the next few years to abolish the national and provincial
assemblies and declared himself emperor in 1915. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates, and faced with the prospect of rebellion, Yuan abdicated and died shortly
afterwards in 1916, leaving a power vacuum in China. His death left the republican government all but shattered, ushering the warlord era when China was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing
provincial military leaders.
provincial military leaders.
In 1919, the May Fourth Movement (五四運動，五四运动) began as a response to the insult imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles ending World War I, but quickly became a protest movement
about the domestic situation in China. The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst Chinese intellectuals was followed by the adoption of more radical lines of thought. This in turn planted
the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century.
In the 1920s, Sun Yat-Sen established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With Soviet assistance, he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Communist
Party of China (CPC, 中國共產黨，中国共产党). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek (蔣介石，蒋介石), seized control of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party or
KMT, 國民黨，国民党) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the Northern Expedition (北伐). Having defeated the warlords in south
and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its
leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic (中華蘇維埃共和國，中华苏维埃共和国), the CPC forces
embarked on the Long March (長征，长征) across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shanxi Province (陝西省延安市).
During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung, 毛澤東，毛泽东). The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or
clandestinely, through the 14-year long Japanese invasion (1931-1945), even though the two parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese invaders in 1937, during the Sino-
Japanese War (1937-1945) portion of World War II. The war between the two parties resumed following the Japanese defeat in 1945. By 1949, the CPC occupied most of the country. (see Chinese
Civil War)
Chiang Kai-shek fled with the remnants of his government to Taiwan in 1949 and his Nationalist Party would control the island as well as a few neighboring islands until democratic elections in the
early 1990s. Since then, the political status of Taiwan has always been under dispute.
Present
Main article: History of the People's Republic of China
See also: People's Republic of China and Political status of Taiwan
With the proclamation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) (中華人民共和國,中华人民共和国) on October 1, 1949, Taiwan was again politically separated from mainland China. However, the actual
political and legal status of Taiwan is disputed. Since the 1990s, the Republic of China government that governs Taiwan along with associated islands as well as some small islands off the coast of
Fujian has been pushing to gain greater international recognition, while the People's Republic of China opposes involvement by third parties, and insists that foreign relations not deviate from the One-
China policy.
Republic of China
Main article: History of the Republic of China
Frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students—inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen (孫中山，孙中山)—
began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and creation of a republic.
Slavery in China was abolished in 1910,[24] although the practice apparently still continues unofficially in some regions.[25][26]
government, as part of the agreement to let the last Qing monarch abdicate (a decision he would later regret). Yuan Shikai proceeded in the next few years to abolish the national and provincial 1912
with Sun Yat-sen as President, but Sun was forced to turn power over to Yuan Shikai (袁世凱), who commanded the New Army and was Prime Minister under the Qing government, as government,
government, as part of the agreement to let the last Qing monarch abdicate (a decision he would later regret). Yuan Shikai proceeded in the next few years to abolish the national and provincial
assemblies and declared himself emperor in 1915. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates, and faced with the prospect of rebellion, Yuan abdicated and died shortly
afterwards in 1916, leaving a power vacuum in China. His death left the republican government all but shattered, ushering the warlord era when China was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing
provincial military leaders.
provincial military leaders.
In 1919, the May Fourth Movement (五四運動，五四运动) began as a response to the insult imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles ending World War I, but quickly became a protest movement
about the domestic situation in China. The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst Chinese intellectuals was followed by the adoption of more radical lines of thought. This in turn planted
the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century.
In the 1920s, Sun Yat-Sen established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With Soviet assistance, he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Communist
Party of China (CPC, 中國共產黨，中国共产党). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek (蔣介石，蒋介石), seized control of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party or
KMT, 國民黨，国民党) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the Northern Expedition (北伐). Having defeated the warlords in south
and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its
leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic (中華蘇維埃共和國，中华苏维埃共和国), the CPC forces
embarked on the Long March (長征，长征) across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shanxi Province (陝西省延安市).
During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung, 毛澤東，毛泽东). The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or
clandestinely, through the 14-year long Japanese invasion (1931-1945), even though the two parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese invaders in 1937, during the Sino-
Japanese War (1937-1945) portion of World War II. The war between the two parties resumed following the Japanese defeat in 1945. By 1949, the CPC occupied most of the country. (see Chinese
Civil War)
Chiang Kai-shek fled with the remnants of his government to Taiwan in 1949 and his Nationalist Party would control the island as well as a few neighboring islands until democratic elections in the
early 1990s. Since then, the political status of Taiwan has always been under dispute.
Present
Main article: History of the People's Republic of China
See also: People's Republic of China and Political status of Taiwan
With the proclamation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) (中華人民共和國,中华人民共和国) on October 1, 1949, Taiwan was again politically separated from mainland China. However, the actual
political and legal status of Taiwan is disputed. Since the 1990s, the Republic of China government that governs Taiwan along with associated islands as well as some small islands off the coast of
Fujian has been pushing to gain greater international recognition, while the People's Republic of China opposes involvement by third parties, and insists that foreign relations not deviate from the One-
China policy.
See also
Chinese armour
Chinese exploration
Chinese historiography
Chinese sovereign
Culture of China
Dynasties in Chinese history
Ethnic groups in Chinese history
Foreign relations of Imperial China
Four occupations
History of Hong Kong
History of Islam in China
History of Macau
History of science and technology in China
History of Taiwan
List of recipients of tribute from China
List of tributaries of Imperial China
List of Chinese rebellions
List of Neolithic cultures of China
List of past Chinese ethnic groups
Military history of China
Naval history of China
Table of Chinese monarchs
Timeline of Chinese history
Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project
Chinese armour
Chinese exploration
Chinese historiography
Chinese sovereign
Culture of China
Dynasties in Chinese history
Ethnic groups in Chinese history
Foreign relations of Imperial China
Four occupations
History of Hong Kong
History of Islam in China
History of Macau
History of science and technology in China
History of Taiwan
List of recipients of tribute from China
List of tributaries of Imperial China
List of Chinese rebellions
List of Neolithic cultures of China
List of past Chinese ethnic groups
Military history of China
Naval history of China
Table of Chinese monarchs
Timeline of Chinese history
Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project
Notes
^ Henry Cleere. Archaeological Heritage Management in the Modern World. 2005. Routledge. p. 318. ISBN 0415214483.
^ a b Rixiang Zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Pott, Kenneth A. Hoffman (June 2003). "Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China" (PDF). Earth
Science Reviews 61: 191–361.
^ "Earliest Presence of Humans in Northeast Asia". Smithsonian Institute. Retrieved on 2007-08-04.
^ "The discovery of early pottery in China" by Zhang Chi, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China
^ "Neolithic Period in China". Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art (October 2004). Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
^ "Rice and Early Agriculture in China". Legacy of Human Civilizations. Mesa Community College. Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
^ "Peiligang Site". Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China (2003). Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
^ Pringle, Heather (1998), The Slow Birth of Agriculture, vol. 282, pp. 1446, <http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/neolithic_agriculture.htm>
^ Wertz, Richard R. (2007). "Neolithic and Bronze Age Cultures". Exploring Chinese History. ibiblio. Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
^ "Huang He". The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th). (2007).
^ "news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6669569.stm". Retrieved on 2007-07-06.
^ "Carvings may rewrite history of Chinese characters", Xinhua online (2007-05-18). Retrieved on 2007-05-19.
^ "The Ancient Dynasties". University of Maryland. Retrieved on 2008-01-12.
^ "Cultural History and Archaeology of China". Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, U.S. State Department. Retrieved on 2008-01-12.
^ Bronze Age China at National Gallery of Art
^ Scripts found on Erlitou pottery (written in Simplified Chinese)
^ "Book "QINSHIHUANG"". Retrieved on 2007-07-06.
^ Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33-53.
^ Course: Plague
^ Black Death - Consequences
^ Twentieth Century Atlas - Historical Body Count
^ Userserols. "Userserols." Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century. Retrieved on 2007-04-11.
^ Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9.
2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0
^ Commemoration of the Abolition of Slavery Project
^ "Chinese Police Find Child Slaves." [1]
^ "Convictions in China slave trial"[2]
^ Henry Cleere. Archaeological Heritage Management in the Modern World. 2005. Routledge. p. 318. ISBN 0415214483.
^ a b Rixiang Zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Pott, Kenneth A. Hoffman (June 2003). "Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China" (PDF). Earth
Science Reviews 61: 191–361.
^ "Earliest Presence of Humans in Northeast Asia". Smithsonian Institute. Retrieved on 2007-08-04.
^ "The discovery of early pottery in China" by Zhang Chi, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China
^ "Neolithic Period in China". Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art (October 2004). Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
^ "Rice and Early Agriculture in China". Legacy of Human Civilizations. Mesa Community College. Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
^ "Peiligang Site". Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China (2003). Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
^ Pringle, Heather (1998), The Slow Birth of Agriculture, vol. 282, pp. 1446, <http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/neolithic_agriculture.htm>
^ Wertz, Richard R. (2007). "Neolithic and Bronze Age Cultures". Exploring Chinese History. ibiblio. Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
^ "Huang He". The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th). (2007).
^ "news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6669569.stm". Retrieved on 2007-07-06.
^ "Carvings may rewrite history of Chinese characters", Xinhua online (2007-05-18). Retrieved on 2007-05-19.
^ "The Ancient Dynasties". University of Maryland. Retrieved on 2008-01-12.
^ "Cultural History and Archaeology of China". Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, U.S. State Department. Retrieved on 2008-01-12.
^ Bronze Age China at National Gallery of Art
^ Scripts found on Erlitou pottery (written in Simplified Chinese)
^ "Book "QINSHIHUANG"". Retrieved on 2007-07-06.
^ Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33-53.
^ Course: Plague
^ Black Death - Consequences
^ Twentieth Century Atlas - Historical Body Count
^ Userserols. "Userserols." Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century. Retrieved on 2007-04-11.
^ Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9.
2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0
^ Commemoration of the Abolition of Slavery Project
^ "Chinese Police Find Child Slaves." [1]
^ "Convictions in China slave trial"[2]
References
From hunter-gatherers to farmers
Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China, by Rixiang zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Potts, Kenneth A. Hoffman.[3]
The Discovery of Early Pottery in China, by Zhang Chi, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China.[4]
Prehistory
Discovery of residue from fermented beverage consumed up to 9,000 years ago in Jiahu, Henan Province, China. By Dr. Patrick E McGovern, University of Pennsylvania archaeochemist and colleagues
from China, Great Britain and Germany.
Xia Dynasty
David S. Nivison (1993), “Chu shu chi nien”, Early Chinese Texts: a bibliographical guide (editor—Loewe M.) p.39–47 (Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China).
James Legge (1865), The Chinese Classics III: The Shoo King Prolegomena (Taipei: Southern Materials Center). (This contains an English translation of the Bamboo Annals.)
Shang Dynasty
Stephen W. Durrant (1995), The Cloudy Mirror: Tension and Conflict in the Writings of Sima Qian. Albany : State University of New York Press.
Han Dynasty
de Crespigny, Rafe. 1977. The Ch’iang Barbarians and the Empire of Han: A Study in Frontier Policy. Papers on Far Eastern History 16, Australian National University. Canberra.
de Crespigny, Rafe. 1984. Northern Frontier. The Policies and Strategies of the Later Han Empire. Rafe de Crespigny. 1984. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. Canberra.
de Crespigny, Rafe. 1989. "South China under the Later Han Dynasty" (Chapter One from Generals of the South: the Foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu by Rafe de
Crespigny, in Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 16 Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 1989)[5]
Dubs, Homer H. 1938. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
Dubs, Homer H. 1944. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Two. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
Dubs, Homer H. 1955. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc.
Hill, John E. 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation.Archive copy at the Internet Archive
Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue ?? by Yu Huan ??: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between AD 239 and 265. Draft annotated English translation.Archive copy
at the Internet Archive
Hirth, Friedrich. 1875. China and the Roman Orient. Shanghai and Hong Kong. Unchanged reprint. Chicago, Ares Publishers, 1975.
Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. Leiden: E.
J. Brill.
Twitchett, Denis and Loewe, Michael, eds. 1986. The Cambridge History of China. Volume I. The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. Cambridge University Press.
Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties
de Crespigny, Rafe. 1991. "The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD." East Asian History, no. 1 June 1991, pp. 1-36, & no. 2 December 1991, pp. 143-164.
Australian National University, Canberra. [7]
Miller, Andrew. 1959. Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty. University of California Press.
Sui Dynasty
Wright, Arthur F. 1978. The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China. AD 581-617. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-394-49187-4 ; 0-394-32332-7 (pbk).
Tang Dynasty
Benn, Charles. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0.
Pelliot, Paul. 1904. "Deux itinéraires de Chine en Inde à la fin du VIIIe siècle." BEFEO 4 (1904), pp. 131-413.
Schafer, Edward H. 1963. The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition. 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
Schafer, Edward H. 1967. The Vermilion Bird: T’ang Images of the South. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Reprint 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 1996. Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500. Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 1-56324-144-7.
Wang, Zhenping. 1991. "T’ang Maritime Trade Administration." Wang Zhenping. Asia Major, Third Series, Vol. IV, 1991, pp. 7-38.
Song Dynasty
Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Shiba, Yoshinobu. 1970. Commerce and Society in Sung China. Originally published in Japanese as So-dai sho-gyo--shi kenkyu-. Tokyo, Kazama shobo-, 1968. Yoshinobu Shiba. Translation by Mark
Elvin, Centre for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan.
Ming Dynasty
Duyvendak, J.J.L. China’s Discovery of Africa (London: Probsthain, 1949)
Sung, Ying-hsing. 1637. T’ien kung k’ai wu. Published as Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York.
Dover Publications.
From hunter-gatherers to farmers
Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China, by Rixiang zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Potts, Kenneth A. Hoffman.[3]
The Discovery of Early Pottery in China, by Zhang Chi, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China.[4]
Prehistory
Discovery of residue from fermented beverage consumed up to 9,000 years ago in Jiahu, Henan Province, China. By Dr. Patrick E McGovern, University of Pennsylvania archaeochemist and colleagues
from China, Great Britain and Germany.
Xia Dynasty
David S. Nivison (1993), “Chu shu chi nien”, Early Chinese Texts: a bibliographical guide (editor—Loewe M.) p.39–47 (Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China).
James Legge (1865), The Chinese Classics III: The Shoo King Prolegomena (Taipei: Southern Materials Center). (This contains an English translation of the Bamboo Annals.)
Shang Dynasty
Stephen W. Durrant (1995), The Cloudy Mirror: Tension and Conflict in the Writings of Sima Qian. Albany : State University of New York Press.
Han Dynasty
de Crespigny, Rafe. 1977. The Ch’iang Barbarians and the Empire of Han: A Study in Frontier Policy. Papers on Far Eastern History 16, Australian National University. Canberra.
de Crespigny, Rafe. 1984. Northern Frontier. The Policies and Strategies of the Later Han Empire. Rafe de Crespigny. 1984. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. Canberra.
de Crespigny, Rafe. 1989. "South China under the Later Han Dynasty" (Chapter One from Generals of the South: the Foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu by Rafe de
Crespigny, in Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 16 Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 1989)[5]
Dubs, Homer H. 1938. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
Dubs, Homer H. 1944. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Two. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
Dubs, Homer H. 1955. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc.
Hill, John E. 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation.Archive copy at the Internet Archive
Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue ?? by Yu Huan ??: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between AD 239 and 265. Draft annotated English translation.Archive copy
at the Internet Archive
Hirth, Friedrich. 1875. China and the Roman Orient. Shanghai and Hong Kong. Unchanged reprint. Chicago, Ares Publishers, 1975.
Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. Leiden: E.
J. Brill.
Twitchett, Denis and Loewe, Michael, eds. 1986. The Cambridge History of China. Volume I. The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. Cambridge University Press.
Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties
de Crespigny, Rafe. 1991. "The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD." East Asian History, no. 1 June 1991, pp. 1-36, & no. 2 December 1991, pp. 143-164.
Australian National University, Canberra. [7]
Miller, Andrew. 1959. Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty. University of California Press.
Sui Dynasty
Wright, Arthur F. 1978. The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China. AD 581-617. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-394-49187-4 ; 0-394-32332-7 (pbk).
Tang Dynasty
Benn, Charles. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0.
Pelliot, Paul. 1904. "Deux itinéraires de Chine en Inde à la fin du VIIIe siècle." BEFEO 4 (1904), pp. 131-413.
Schafer, Edward H. 1963. The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition. 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
Schafer, Edward H. 1967. The Vermilion Bird: T’ang Images of the South. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Reprint 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 1996. Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500. Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 1-56324-144-7.
Wang, Zhenping. 1991. "T’ang Maritime Trade Administration." Wang Zhenping. Asia Major, Third Series, Vol. IV, 1991, pp. 7-38.
Song Dynasty
Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Shiba, Yoshinobu. 1970. Commerce and Society in Sung China. Originally published in Japanese as So-dai sho-gyo--shi kenkyu-. Tokyo, Kazama shobo-, 1968. Yoshinobu Shiba. Translation by Mark
Elvin, Centre for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan.
Ming Dynasty
Duyvendak, J.J.L. China’s Discovery of Africa (London: Probsthain, 1949)
Sung, Ying-hsing. 1637. T’ien kung k’ai wu. Published as Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York.
Dover Publications.
Further reading
Abramson, Marc S. (2008). Ethnic Identity in Tang China. University of
Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 978-0-8122-4052-8.
Ankerl, G. C. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati,
Chinese, and Western. INU PRESS Geneva, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
Creel, Herrlee Glessner. The Birth of China. 1936.
Fairbank, John King, China : a new history, Cambridge, Mass. : Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1992. ISBN 0674116704
Hammond, Kenneth J. From Yao to Mao: 5000 Years of Chinese History. The
Teaching Company, 2004. (A lecture on DVD.)
Giles, Herbert Allen. The Civilization of China. Project Gutenburg e-text. A
general history, originally published around 1911.
Giles, Herbert Allen. China and the Manchus. Project Gutenburg e-text. Covers
the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, published shortly after the fall of the dynasty,
around 1912.
Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics:
Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends. Moscow: URSS, 2006. ISBN
5-484-00559-0 [8] (Chapter 2: Historical Population Dynamics in China).
Laufer, Berthold. 1912. JADE: A Study in Chinese Archaeology & Religion.
Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974.
Wilkinson; Endymion Porter, Chinese history : a manual, revised and
enlarged. - Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard Univ., Asia Center for the
Harvard-Yenching Institute [u.a.], 2000, 1181 p., ISBN 0-674-00247-4; ISBN
0-674-00249-0
Abramson, Marc S. (2008). Ethnic Identity in Tang China. University of
Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 978-0-8122-4052-8.
Ankerl, G. C. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati,
Chinese, and Western. INU PRESS Geneva, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
Creel, Herrlee Glessner. The Birth of China. 1936.
Fairbank, John King, China : a new history, Cambridge, Mass. : Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1992. ISBN 0674116704
Hammond, Kenneth J. From Yao to Mao: 5000 Years of Chinese History. The
Teaching Company, 2004. (A lecture on DVD.)
Giles, Herbert Allen. The Civilization of China. Project Gutenburg e-text. A
general history, originally published around 1911.
Giles, Herbert Allen. China and the Manchus. Project Gutenburg e-text. Covers
the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, published shortly after the fall of the dynasty,
around 1912.
Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics:
Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends. Moscow: URSS, 2006. ISBN
5-484-00559-0 [8] (Chapter 2: Historical Population Dynamics in China).
Laufer, Berthold. 1912. JADE: A Study in Chinese Archaeology & Religion.
Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974.
Wilkinson; Endymion Porter, Chinese history : a manual, revised and
enlarged. - Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard Univ., Asia Center for the
Harvard-Yenching Institute [u.a.], 2000, 1181 p., ISBN 0-674-00247-4; ISBN
0-674-00249-0
External links
This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or
other symbols instead of Chinese characters.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: History of China
History of China: Table of Contents - Chaos Group at University of Maryland
(Chinese)Chinese Database by Academia Sinica
(Chinese)Manuscript and Graphics Database by Academia Sinica
China Chronology World History Database
Ancient Asian WorldHistory, culture and archaeology of the ancient Asian continent. Many articles and pictures
A universal guide for China studies
Chinese History Forum
History Forum - Discuss Chinese history at History Forum's Asian History section
Chinese Siege Warfare - Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity - An Illustrated History bought to you
by History Forum
A Simplified History of China
Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home Explore the historical contents of domestic architecture during the Qing dynasty
and its pertinence to Chinese heritage and historical culture.
Early Medieval China is a journal devoted to academic scholarship relating to the period roughly between the end
of the Han and beginning of the Tang eras.
Cultural Revolution Propaganda Poster
China Rediscovers its Own History 100 minute lecture on Chinese history given by renowned scholar/author Yu
Ying-shih, Emeritus Professor of East Asian Studies and History at Princeton University.=)
Resources for Middle School students Readable resources for students in grades 5-9 - more than 250 links.
Wolfram Eberhard, A history of China (online), February 7, 2006 [EBook #17695], ISO-8859-1
This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or
other symbols instead of Chinese characters.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: History of China
History of China: Table of Contents - Chaos Group at University of Maryland
(Chinese)Chinese Database by Academia Sinica
(Chinese)Manuscript and Graphics Database by Academia Sinica
China Chronology World History Database
Ancient Asian WorldHistory, culture and archaeology of the ancient Asian continent. Many articles and pictures
A universal guide for China studies
Chinese History Forum
History Forum - Discuss Chinese history at History Forum's Asian History section
Chinese Siege Warfare - Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity - An Illustrated History bought to you
by History Forum
A Simplified History of China
Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home Explore the historical contents of domestic architecture during the Qing dynasty
and its pertinence to Chinese heritage and historical culture.
Early Medieval China is a journal devoted to academic scholarship relating to the period roughly between the end
of the Han and beginning of the Tang eras.
Cultural Revolution Propaganda Poster
China Rediscovers its Own History 100 minute lecture on Chinese history given by renowned scholar/author Yu
Ying-shih, Emeritus Professor of East Asian Studies and History at Princeton University.=)
Resources for Middle School students Readable resources for students in grades 5-9 - more than 250 links.
Wolfram Eberhard, A history of China (online), February 7, 2006 [EBook #17695], ISO-8859-1
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